Audiobook Assistive Technology Competence on Audio-Listening Skills Acquisition among Trainees with Visual Impairment: A Case Study of TVET Institutes, Kenya

Introduction

Background

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is expected to provide accessible pathways to occupational skills for diverse learners. For trainees with visual impairment (TWVI), however, participation can be constrained when instructional materials, assessment procedures, digital systems, and trainer practices are not accessible. Recent evidence from Africa and Kenya indicates that inclusive TVET provision continues to face challenges related to inaccessible infrastructure, inadequate assistive and learning resources, limited staff capacity, insufficient funding, and gaps between inclusive education policy and its implementation (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2022; Msimango et al., 2026). The International Labour Organization (2025) identifies disability-inclusive TVET as requiring coordinated action on accessibility, institutional support, and skills development systems. In Kenya, recent work on vocational training likewise reports that assistive technology (AT) can support engagement and participation while costs, infrastructure, and trainer capacity remain constraints (Malechwanzi et al., 2026).

Assistive technology is used to mean technology that enables functional access for persons with disabilities. Therefore, an audiobook is treated as an AT-enabled accessible learning format when spoken instructional content is delivered through a recorded audio medium that can be navigated, paused, replayed, and accessed independently. Audiobook use competence refers to the practical ability to access, navigate, control, and use audiobook content for learning. Audio-listening skills acquisition refers to performance on tasks requiring attention to spoken input, recognition of relevant information, comprehension of details and complex sentences, identification of keywords, interpretation of intonation and emotion, recall or summarisation, and related listening processes. Listening comprehension is multidimensional and assessment is influenced by the characteristics of the spoken input and the tasks used to elicit understanding (Aryadoust & Luo, 2023; Mealings et al., 2025). Consequently, the audio-listening test in this study is interpreted as an indicator of listening performance under the study test conditions.

Audiobooks may be particularly relevant in TVET because trainees receive information through spoken explanations, demonstrations, discussions, instructions, and safety briefings. They also offer repeated access to content and can complement Braille and other accessible formats. Evidence from Ghana indicates that audiobooks can improve access to learning and teaching materials for print-disabled users, particularly where Braille production is constrained (Ry-Kottoh et al., 2022). Evidence from Tanzania similarly shows that access to AT among learners with visual impairment depends not only on availability but also on technical know-how and institutional support (Kisanga & Kisanga, 2022).

Problem statement

Despite policy commitments to inclusive education and increasing recognition of AT as an enabler of participation, evidence remains limited on how TWVI in Kenyan TVET settings perceive and use audiobooks and how their performance on audio-listening tasks compares with those perceptions. The existing literature has more often addressed access, general technology use, reading outcomes, or attitudes than the combination of self-reported audiobook use and an objective listening-performance measure in Kenyan TVET. Recent Kenyan and African TVET studies continue to identify resource, infrastructure, policy, and trainer-capacity constraints, reinforcing the need for context-specific evidence (International Labour Organization, 2025; Malechwanzi et al., 2026).

The present study therefore addresses a descriptive evidence gap by bringing together trainee and trainer perceptions with an audio-listening test in two Kenyan TVET institutions.

Research objective

To describe trainees' perceived competence in use of audiobooks and their audio-listening performance among TWVI in selected TVET institutes in Kenya.

Research question

What are the reported levels of audiobook use competence and the observed levels of audio-listening performance among TWVI in the selected TVET institutes?

Limitations

Some outcomes rely on self-report and may be affected by recall or social desirability bias.

Theoretical framework

The study is informed by the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) as a sensitising framework for interpreting the conditions surrounding assistive technology (AT) use. UTAUT highlights performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. Recent research with people with visual impairment has also shown that training can be an important condition for sustained AT use (Theodorou et al., 2024). The framework helped organise interpretation of findings concerning perceived usefulness, training, availability, infrastructure, and institutional guidance.

A complementary social-model perspective treats disability-related restrictions as partly produced by environmental and institutional barriers. This is relevant to technical and vocational education and training (TVET) because the accessibility of an audiobook depends not only on a trainee’s skill but also on whether suitable content, devices, infrastructure, trained personnel, and supportive procedures are available. The evidence frames AT as part of inclusive institutional practice rather than as a device-only intervention (Malechwanzi et al., 2026).

Literature review

Assistive technology adoption and use

Research on AT adoption among people with visual impairment indicates that access and effective use are shaped by both individual and contextual factors. Kisanga and Kisanga (2022) found that Tanzanian students with visual impairment could be familiar with AT while remaining dependent on more skilled users for effective use. Theodorou et al. (2024), using an extended UTAUT model, found training to be an important factor in acceptance of smartphone-based AT among people with visual impairment. A 2025 study in Tanzania likewise identified institutional and user factors affecting high-tech AT use. These findings suggest that provision alone is insufficient; competence develops within an ecosystem of training, accessible content, technical support, and facilitating conditions.

The International Labour Organization (ILO, 2025) emphasises system-level measures for disability inclusion in TVET, while recent Kenyan research reports barriers involving infrastructure, costs, institutional support, and trainer capacity (Malechwanzi et al., 2026). Similarly, Maluleke and Mokoena (2026), in a scoping review of technology integration in African TVET institutions, identified inadequate infrastructure, limited digital literacy, insufficient lecturer training, and weak institutional support as important constraints on sustainable technology integration. These findings provide a relevant regional basis for interpreting the present results, particularly the coexistence of positive perceptions of audiobook use with moderate measured audio-listening performance, without assuming that positive perceptions necessarily translate into higher performance.

Audiobooks provide spoken access to materials that may otherwise be inaccessible in print. Ry-Kottoh et al. (2022) describe audiobooks as a means of improving access to learning and teaching materials for print-disabled users, particularly where Braille production is constrained. McKnight and Jenkins (2019) reported that visually impaired audiobook readers valued access, independence, and choice. Existing research on audiobooks and visual impairment has also examined reading comprehension and fluency, but these outcomes should not be treated as interchangeable with listening comprehension.

More recent work reinforces the importance of accessible audio resources while also highlighting limitations in the evidence base. Studies of AT in Tanzania and Kenya show that users may face shortages of accessible resources and inadequate technical support (Kisanga & Kisanga, 2022; Malechwanzi et al., 2026). The precise evidence gap is therefore not whether audiobooks can be useful in principle, but how audiobook use is experienced and how trainees perform on listening tasks in the specific institutional conditions of Kenyan TVET.

Listening comprehension and assessment

Listening comprehension involves processing spoken input to construct meaning, rather than simply hearing an audio signal. Contemporary reviews emphasise that listening assessments vary in the skills sampled, the stimulus characteristics, the number of exposures, and the response tasks. Aryadoust and Luo (2023) argue for explicit definition of the listening construct, while Mealings et al. (2025) show that listening-comprehension tests differ substantially in standardisation, reliability, stimulus presentation, and item format. These observations are relevant to the present study because the audio test should be interpreted as a study-specific measure of listening performance rather than as a universally standardised proficiency test.

The present test sampled sound recognition; intonation and emotion; listening for details; comprehension of complex sentences; summarisation; recognition of accents and dialects; listening to numbers and letters; identification of key words; understanding idioms and expressions; and prediction of outcomes.

Inclusive education in TVET

Inclusive TVET requires more than enrolment: trainees must be able to access instruction, participate in learning activities, and demonstrate skills through accessible assessment. Recent evidence identifies persistent implementation gaps between inclusive policy commitments and institutional practice. The ILO (2025) calls for accessible systems, capacity-building, and coordinated support, while Kenyan research highlights infrastructure and trainer capacity constraints in vocational settings (Malechwanzi et al., 2026).

The specific gap addressed by this study is the limited descriptive evidence that combines trainee and trainer perceptions of audiobook use and its enabling conditions with objective assessment of audio-listening performance among trainees with visual impairment (TWVI) in Kenyan TVET institutions. The study extends the existing literature by examining these measures together among participants from two TVET institutions in Homa Bay and Machakos Counties.

Methodology

Research design

A descriptive cross-sectional survey design was used. The design was selected to identify existing audiobook use perceptions, institutional conditions, and audio-listening performance without manipulating audiobook exposure or assigning participants to intervention groups. Accordingly, the analysis was descriptive and the findings were interpreted as patterns observed at the time of data collection.

Study location

The study was conducted in the two special public TVET institutions in Homa Bay and Machakos Counties that specifically train trainees with visual impairment (TWVI). The institutions enrol TWVI from across Kenya and have a specialised national mandate to provide accessible vocational training. Therefore, the findings may be generalised to TWVI in similar special TVET settings, but caution is needed when extending them to mainstream TVET institutions without the same specialised mandate.

Population and sample

The target population comprised 220 trainees with visual impairment (TWVI) and 20 trainers across the two institutions. The trainees had interacted with assistive technologies for at least one year, based on a baseline survey conducted in December 2024. Participants used for piloting were excluded from the main study. Census sampling was used, whereby all eligible trainees and trainers in the two participating institutions were invited to participate. Individuals who participated in the pilot study were excluded from the main study.

Table 1. Sample frame

Respondent group	Target population, N	Sampled, n
Trainees	220	198
Trainers	20	18

The reported sampling frame was 220 trainees and 20 trainers. After the pilot exclusion, 198 trainees and 18 trainers were sampled.

Instruments and measures

Trainee and trainer questionnaires

Structured questionnaires were administered to trainees and trainers. Five-point Likert-type response categories of strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree were used, coded 1–5. The trainee instrument included eight reported items concerning availability, training, perceived listening/comprehension benefits, study flexibility, time efficiency, format preference and combined use of audiobooks and Braille. The trainer instrument included 14 reported items covering infrastructure, subject-specific content, training, policy guidance, perceived learning benefits, preference, technical barriers and concentration.

Audio-listening test

The trainee audio test assessed sound recognition; recognition of intonation and emotion; listening for details; comprehension of complex sentences; summarisation; recognition of accents and dialects; listening to numbers and letters; identification of key words; understanding idioms and expressions; and prediction of outcomes. Scores were expressed as percentages from 0–100. The observed scores ranged from 19.17% to 83.25%, with a mean of 50.36% (SD = 11.27%).

Operationalisation of key variables

Audiobook-use competence was conceptualised as the practical ability to access, operate, navigate and use audiobook materials strategically for learning. Competence-related indicators concerned trainees’ perceived ability to use audiobooks and their perceived learning-related benefits, whereas contextual indicators concerned the availability of audiobooks, adequacy of training, infrastructure and other institutional conditions that may facilitate or constrain their use. These contextual indicators were therefore interpreted separately from competence and were not treated as direct measures of competence. The study did not assume that favourable perceptions of audiobook use or favourable contextual conditions necessarily represented demonstrated competence or higher audio-listening performance.

Audio-listening performance was operationalised as the percentage score obtained on the study-specific audio test. The test covered sound recognition, intonation and emotion, listening for details, comprehension of complex sentences, summarisation, recognition of accents and dialects, listening to numbers and letters, identification of key words, understanding idioms and expressions and prediction of outcomes. The score bands were used descriptively and were not treated as validated diagnostic cut-points. Trainer responses were used to describe trainers’ perceptions of audiobook use, training and institutional conditions rather than as a direct measure of trainee audiobook competence.

Validity and reliability

Face and content validity were assessed through expert review by specialists in special needs education, who considered item relevance, clarity and adequacy in relation to the study objectives. The trainee and trainer questionnaires were piloted with 22 trainees and two trainers who were not included in the main study. Test–retest reliability was assessed by administering the trainee and trainer questionnaires twice, with a two-week interval between administrations. Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficients were 0.84 for the trainee questionnaire and 0.87 for the trainer questionnaire, indicating strong positive associations between scores across the two administrations. Cronbach’s alpha was not calculated in the original analysis; consequently, internal consistency was not established. The questionnaire items covered multiple aspects of audiobook use and related contextual conditions and were interpreted descriptively.

Data collection and accessibility procedures

Questionnaires were hand-delivered and self-administered, while structured audio tests were conducted. For participants with visual impairment, Braille-formatted questionnaires and test instructions were provided to ensure accessibility and facilitate independent completion of the study instruments. For participants who were not Braille-literate, questionnaires and test instructions were administered orally by trained research personnel, while participants who preferred Braille were provided with Braille-formatted materials. Participants were allowed to request clarification of instructions without assistance being provided on the substantive test responses. These arrangements were intended to support accessibility while preserving participant autonomy.

Participant recruitment

Following approval from the relevant authorities and participating institutions, the researcher liaised with institutional administrators and relevant trainers to identify eligible trainees and trainers. Eligible participants were informed about the study, its procedures, its voluntary nature and confidentiality safeguards before being invited to participate. Participants who consented were included in the study. Trainers in the two participating institutions were invited because of their involvement in teaching and supporting trainees with visual impairment. Participants who had taken part in the pilot study were excluded from the main study. Of the 198 sampled trainees, 188 completed the study instruments, while all 18 sampled trainers participated. The analysis therefore used the available completed responses. No formal non-response survey or follow-up comparison of respondents and non-respondents was undertaken.

Data analysis

Data were coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Frequencies and percentages were used to summarise categorical variables, while means and standard deviations were used to summarise Likert-scale responses and audio-test scores. The five-point questionnaire items were interpreted using their 1–5 response anchors. Because the study objective was descriptive and the cross-sectional design did not seek to test causal or predictive relationships, no inferential hypothesis testing or regression modelling was undertaken. Analysis was based on available complete responses for each reported item and test score; missing responses were not imputed.

Ethics

Permission to conduct the study was obtained from all relevant authorities and participating institutions. Participation was voluntary, and participants provided informed consent before data collection. For participants aged 16–17 years, assent was obtained from the participant and informed consent was obtained from the parent or legal guardian in accordance with the approved research procedures. Participants were informed of the purpose and procedures of the study, their right to decline participation or withdraw without penalty, and the measures taken to protect the confidentiality of their responses. Data were collected using accessible procedures appropriate for participants with visual impairment, such as the provision of Braille-formatted questionnaires and test instructions. Privacy was maintained during questionnaire and test administration. Data were treated confidentially; identifying information was excluded from the analysis and reporting, and access to the collected data was restricted to the research team. The data were used solely for research purposes.

Audio-listening test administration

The audio-listening test comprised items distributed across the assessed domains: sound recognition; intonation and emotion; listening for details; comprehension of complex sentences; summarisation; recognition of accents and dialects; listening to numbers and letters; identification of keywords; understanding idioms and expressions; and prediction of outcomes. Testing was conducted in a quiet classroom or individual room, with interruptions minimised and comparable volume and environmental conditions maintained across participants. Each stimulus was presented; one repetition was permitted in accordance with the test protocol. The examiner/research assistants were trained on standardised administration procedures, including instructions, equipment operation and scoring. Responses were scored using predetermined marking rules, with each correct response receiving a score. The total score was converted to a percentage ranging from 0 to 100.

Results

Response rate

Out of the 198 sampled trainees, 188 participated, representing a 94.9% response rate. All 18 sampled trainers returned their questionnaires, representing a 100.0% response rate. The response rates were calculated using the respective sampled groups as the denominators rather than the target population. No formal non-response survey or follow-up comparison of respondents and non-respondents was undertaken.

Table 2. Sampling and response rates.

Respondent group	Target population, N	Sampled, n	Final responses, n	Response rate among sampled (%)
Trainees	220	198	188	94.9
Trainers	20	18	18	100.0

Table 3. Characteristics of trainee respondents (n = 188).

Characteristic	Category	n	%
Gender	Male	107	56.91
	Female	81	43.09
Age	16–24 years	105	55.85
	25–30 years	54	28.72
	31–35 years	23	12.23
	36–39 years	4	2.12
	>40 years	2	1.06
Programme	Arts/business	182	96.81
	Engineering/technology	6	3.19

In Table 3, the final trainee sample comprised 188 trainees with visual impairment (TWVI). Of these, 107 (56.91%) were male and 81 (43.09%) were female. The largest age group was 16–24 years (n = 105, 55.85%), followed by 25–30 years (n = 54, 28.72%). Most trainees (n = 182, 96.81%) were enrolled in arts/business-related programmes and 6 (3.19%) in engineering/technology programmes. All trainees were totally blind, and trainer characteristics such as gender and years of experience were not collected in the study.

Table 4. Trainers’ perceptions of audiobook use, learning benefits and contextual conditions (n = 18).

Perception	SD f (%)	D f (%)	N f (%)	A f (%)	SA f (%)	Mean	Std. deviation
Inadequate infrastructure supporting audiobook usage.	0 (0)	2 (11)	1 (6)	4 (22)	11 (61)	4.33	1.02
No access to a variety of subjects	0 (0)	0 (0)	1 (6)	5 (28)	12 (67)	4.61	0.60
Received adequate training to incorporate audiobooks into teaching.	2 (11)	4 (22)	0 (0)	4 (22)	8 (44)	3.66	1.53
Unclear policies and guidelines on the use of audiobooks	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	7 (39)	11 (61)	4.61	0.50
Audiobooks improve listening comprehension skills	0 (0)	0 (0)	1 (6)	16 (89)	1 (6)	4.00	0.34
Recall more information from audiobooks compared with printed Braille texts.	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	16 (89)	2 (11)	4.11	0.32
Audiobooks improve vocabulary and pronunciation	0 (0)	3 (17)	1 (6)	4 (22)	10 (56)	4.16	1.15
Braille develops reading and tactile literacy skills that audiobooks cannot	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	16 (89)	2 (11)	4.11	0.32
Braille is more suitable for subjects requiring mathematical or technical symbols	0 (0)	1 (6)	1 (6)	8 (44)	8 (44)	4.27	0.82
Trainees retain information better with audiobooks than with Braille	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	7 (39)	11 (61)	4.61	0.50
Learners prefer audiobooks over Braille when given a choice	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	8 (44)	10 (56)	4.55	0.51
Limited availability of locally relevant audiobooks	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	5 (28)	13 (72)	4.72	0.46
Technical issues hinder effective audiobook use	1 (6)	1 (6)	0 (0)	15 (83)	1 (6)	3.77	0.87
TWVI have difficulty concentrating during audiobook sessions	0 (0)	1 (6)	0 (0)	12 (67)	5 (28)	4.16	0.70
Overall mean						4.23	0.69

Note. Likert responses were coded 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.

In Table 4, trainers reported generally positive perceptions of audiobook-supported learning (overall M = 4.23, SD = 0.69). At the same time, the highest trainer rating concerned limited availability of locally relevant audiobooks (M = 4.72, SD = 0.46), while the lowest rating among the selected indicators was for receiving adequate training to incorporate audiobooks into teaching (M = 3.66, SD = 1.53). These results directly support the presence of perceived resource and training constraints in the trainer responses.

Table 5. Trainees’ perceptions of audiobook use, learning benefits and contextual conditions (n = 188).

Response	SD f (%)	D f (%)	N f (%)	A f (%)	SA f (%)	Mean	Std. deviation
Audiobooks are not readily available	1 (1)	3 (2)	1 (1)	121 (64)	62 (33)	4.27	0.61
Not enough training on the use of audiobooks	0 (0)	0 (0)	2 (1)	126 (67)	60 (32)	4.30	0.48
Audiobooks improve my listening and comprehension skills	3 (2)	9 (5)	0 (0)	121 (64)	55 (29)	4.14	0.78
Braille reading develops the ability to focus better than audiobooks	5 (3)	4 (2)	2 (1)	133 (71)	44 (23)	4.09	0.74
I can study in more situations using audiobooks	0 (0)	1 (1)	1 (1)	92 (49)	94 (50)	4.48	0.54
Less time is required to go through content using audiobooks	3 (2)	2 (1)	1 (1)	75 (40)	107 (57)	4.49	0.72
Preference for learning materials in audio format	1 (1)	6 (3)	1 (1)	89 (47)	91 (48)	4.39	0.71
A combination of audiobooks and Braille offers the best learning experience	0 (0)	1 (1)	1 (1)	92 (49)	94 (50)	4.48	0.54
Overall mean						4.31	0.64

In Table 5, trainees expressed overall positive perceptions (M = 4.31, SD = 0.64). They reported that audiobooks enabled study in more situations (M = 4.48, SD = 0.54), reduced the time required to go through content (M = 4.49, SD = 0.72), and were preferred as an audio learning format (M = 4.39, SD = 0.71). However, the same respondents reported limited availability (M = 4.27, SD = 0.61) and insufficient training (M = 4.30, SD = 0.48). Thus, positive perceptions coexisted with substantial reported access and capacity constraints.

Audio-listening performance

Table 6. Distribution of trainee audio-listening test scores (n = 188).

Score band	n	%
0–19%	0	0.0
20–29%	5	2.7
30–39%	26	13.8
40–49%	54	28.7
50–59%	62	33.0
60–69%	30	16.0
70–79%	9	4.8
80–89%	2	1.1
90–100%	0	0.0

In Table 6, the audio-listening scores ranged from 19.17% to 83.25%. The mean was 50.36% (SD = 11.27%). The largest single band was 50–59% (n = 62, 33.0%), followed by 40–49% (n = 54, 28.7%). Combined, 116 trainees (61.7%) scored between 40% and 59%. Only 11 trainees (5.9%) scored at least 70%, while no trainee scored 90–100%. The distribution therefore indicates moderate performance under the study test conditions, with relatively few trainees attaining the upper score bands.

Discussion

Positive perceptions alongside moderate performance

The central descriptive pattern is a divergence between positive perceptions of audiobook-supported learning and moderate performance on the audio-listening test. Trainees reported high ratings for flexible study and time efficiency, but also high ratings for limited availability and insufficient training. Trainers similarly reported limited locally relevant content and relatively weak preparation for incorporating audiobooks into teaching. These findings are consistent with evidence that assistive technology (AT) effectiveness depends on training, institutional support, infrastructure, and the availability of appropriate resources (Kisanga & Kisanga, 2022; Theodorou et al., 2024; International Labour Organization, 2025). Importantly, the reported availability of audiobooks, adequacy of training, and institutional support represent contextual conditions rather than direct indicators of audiobook competence. The descriptive pattern should therefore not be interpreted as evidence that institutional constraints caused the moderate listening performance; rather, the findings show that favourable perceptions of audiobook-supported learning coexisted with reported contextual constraints and moderate performance on the study-specific listening assessment.

The moderate listening-test performance is a complex construct involving multiple processes, and assessment results depend on the characteristics of the stimulus and task (Aryadoust & Luo, 2023; Mealings et al., 2025). Audiobook access may provide opportunities for exposure, but exposure alone does not demonstrate mastery of summarisation, inference, recognition of key information, or other higher-order listening processes. The present findings therefore support the need to distinguish access to audio content from demonstrable listening performance.

Contribution to knowledge

The study contributes context-specific descriptive evidence on audiobook use among trainees with visual impairment (TWVI) in two TVET institutes in Kenya by examining trainee perceptions, trainer perceptions, institutional constraints, and an audio-listening performance measure within the same analysis. This extends existing literature, which has often examined assistive technology (AT) access, user attitudes, and literacy outcomes separately. The findings document a measurable gap between generally favourable perceptions of audiobook use and moderate performance on the audio-listening measure. The study also identifies training and the availability of suitable audio learning content as prominent reported constraints, thereby highlighting conditions relevant to the effective use of audiobooks for learning among TWVI.

Prioritise development and procurement of curriculum-aligned audiobooks, with emphasis on locally relevant vocational terminology. This requires coordination among TVET curriculum developers, institutions, accessible-format producers, and libraries.

Trainer capacity building to include practical sessions on selecting accessible audio materials, navigating Digital Accessible Information System (DAISY)-compatible or other accessible platforms, designing active-listening tasks, and combining audio with Braille and other accessible formats. The reported trainer training gap provides a direct institutional target.

Audiobook use should be integrated into teaching and assessment routines rather than treated only as an optional resource. Short listening tasks can be embedded in lessons, followed by comprehension questions, summarisation, note-taking, and verbal or accessible written responses. Such integration would allow listening skills to be practised and assessed systematically.

Monitor access conditions such as the availability of devices, accessible files, power, storage, technical support, and relevant content alongside learner outcomes. The implementation pathway can begin with an accessibility audit, followed by prioritisation of high-demand course materials, trainer orientation, small-scale curriculum integration, and periodic review of trainee performance.

Limitations

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. The cross-sectional descriptive design provides a snapshot of audiobook assistive technology use and audio-listening performance and does not establish temporal or causal relationships between the variables. Some measures relied on self-reported perceptions and may therefore be subject to recall or social-desirability bias, although these were complemented by a performance-based audio-listening assessment. Despite the high response rates, non-response and selection bias cannot be entirely excluded. In addition, the study was conducted in two TVET institutions in Homa Bay and Machakos Counties, which limits the generalisability of the findings to other Kenya TVET contexts.

Conclusion

The study found generally positive trainee and trainer perceptions of audiobook-supported learning alongside moderate trainee performance on an audio-listening test. Reported constraints included limited availability of locally relevant content and inadequate training. These findings indicate that accessible audio resources are valued within the participating TVET settings but that access, preparation, and instructional integration remain important implementation considerations.

Recommendations

1. TVET institutions should conduct accessibility audits and prioritise curriculum-aligned, locally relevant audiobook materials.

1. Institutions and relevant technical and vocational education and training (TVET) stakeholders should provide continuing professional development for trainers on audiobook navigation, active-listening pedagogy, accessible assessment, and complementary use of audiobooks and Braille.
2. Audiobook activities should be integrated into routine teaching and assessment, including structured listening, comprehension, summarisation, note-taking, and recall tasks.
3. Future studies using longitudinal, quasi-experimental, or experimental designs should test whether structured audiobook interventions are associated with changes in listening performance.

Ethics approval

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Department of Special Education and Rehabilitation and the Scientific and Ethical Review Committee of Maseno University (Approval No. MUSERC/01559/25). In addition, a research permit was obtained from the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI) (Licence No. NACOSTI/P/26/4188142). These approvals and the research permit ensured that the study complied with applicable institutional and national research requirements.

Data availability

The identified data supporting the findings of this study may be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to institutional ethical requirements and protection of participant confidentiality.

Declaration of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

AI usage statement

AI tools were used for language editing. The authors take full responsibility for the accuracy, interpretation, and final version of the manuscript.